So there is no doubt that British and Irish hillforts are very strongly connected to the cultural origins of similar structures in Europe. Whether by a kind of cultural osmosis, or migration, or just competition, is not firmly known, but certainly there must have been all 3 of those to some extent. What is for sure is the structures in Western Europe are the closest brothers and sisters to the Iron Age citadels of the British Isles. There are many classic type hillforts in Europe, from the era, sitting atop a hills, and also the typical promontory forts, like what you find in Brittany, as in more using the coast and it's cliffs, than even adding their manmade touches. Such as ramparts protecting a peninsula from attacks coming from the main area of land that the fort is connected to. Indeed though in France and Germany there are the mighty oppida. Some are mentioned by Caesar in his writings on his wars, and we get an idea of battles his Romans fought against the Gauls, when up against these oppida.

 

The Iron Age is when these structures got going, though there were equivalents in the late Bronze Age. More importantly it is felt the structures were built by the various tribes termed people the Celts. I feel most of the spread of the idea of hillforts, was by a kind of cultural osmosis, via trade, and competition. There have been theories it may have been elites conquering other elites, then spreading the idea, or even mass population movements, and although that must have occurred to some extent, and is a reason for material change in lands in some times in history, it is more likely it was about the idea spreading, not the people who used them, than anything else. As shown by a look at the DNA evidence of the time, showing the populations were not being displaced on mass during the era.

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I myself had a problem realising which was plural, out of Oppida and Oppidum, but a good way to remember is the term, the Oppidum of Manching, a great Celtic hillfort in Germany. 

 

So the Celts is a term the Romans used to describe tribes such as France's Gauls, and from this later historians have used it to describe a number of societies including the Gauls and the ancient Britons of England Wales, and Scotland. Some historians get annoyed with the term being used, thinking as it is now applied to Scotland, Wales and Ireland, iit has become misleading. Though I see it as a term which makes sense, after all the Gauls and British had similar cultures, and the languages used by the Gauls and British Celts were similar. Also to a extent the Scots, Welsh and Irish can claim some continuity with the term Celts, which yes the English and French can, but a bit less. It is likely the Celts were just a fusion of some migrants from Europe, but mostly the people who were in Britain and Gaul, before Iron, and hillforts started expanding across the map of Western Europe.

 

 

In this, there are hillfort style structures across Gaul, and parts of Western Europe. Though what is most spectacular are the oppida. The largest British hillforts would be imperious and impressive sites, such as the magnificent Maiden Castle, at it's prime, and those estimated to have held 1,000 people would as I say be fantastic sites.

 

Meanwhile the largest oppida in France and Germany, were even a few centuries before Rome took Britain, across the era, in quite a number of examples, double or even a few times larger than even Maiden Castle, in population. With some possibly even larger than that. They were often the centres of major trade routes across Europe, between the Danube or Rhine, the Senne or the Rhone, or Baltic Amber trade routes and such.

 

In addition such places would even be engines for economic growth and development. Therefore they did not just cover a larger area, but had greater levels of technology in many cases as well. Some of them would have seemed like a mega city compared to many of the forts in Britain at the time, and just like hillforts many experienced battles and conflict. The groups which held these included the Gauls who covered most of France, and parts of Western Germany. Plus the Belgae to their north, and some other related Celtic tribes stretching to the Czech Republic, such as the Boli. The fact some of these forts stretch back a few centuries before the birth of Jesus, means the Celtic Iron Age hillfort era had a very long history of a society that could be delved into for stories. Looking at the art they created as well, from the weapons, and art pieces they created, you see a society rich in culture and variety, that really needs delving into, as I do in my story., when it visits Gaul Indeed also there in Germany there was the Oppidum of Manching, a fort of thousands of people, which had for example a cult tree, a wooden trunk, covered in gold leaf, with bronze leaves indicating the effort at sublime art. More importantly in terms of fort structures the European forts at times had more rigid walls, than the often rubble built and dry stone walling designs of Britain and Ireland, which were good but not as strong as these more rigid types. I mention more of that later. Also the entrances were sometimes immense, like at Bibracte, the monumental gate was 20 metres wide, and 40 metres deep, surely bigger than some fortified communities. For a oppidum that could house thousands of people, a monumental entrance was useful for trade and impressing people. Experts have decided there were huge defences above them, where those coming into the fort would have to passage through a well-protected gateway, way above on each side, where likely dozens of people could pass in and out at a time. Though in times of trouble defences could easily be placed along these weak spots, and the deep ditches, or mighty walls, encircling the settlement put into force. I should say that as well as France and Western Germany, well Belgium, Luxembourg, and the extreme south of the Netherlands had oppida or hillfort style Celtic sites. Not all oppida are just giant hillforts, some are flatter terrains, but it deserves a mention. Sites such as Titelberg in Luxembourg, and the variously named  Caestert, Kanne Caster, and Mount St Peter, in Eastern Belgium, Wallonia, can fairly be called hillforts. The latter may have been the site of battles with Roman forces in Belgium. That is just speculation though there. 

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There is also some evidence that there were large battles between Celtic tribes before the Romans. For instance the huge Celtic army that spread South east through Europe that met the Greeks in the 279 BC, which was recorded by history. There is some evidence of some large oppida being violently attacked, even in pre history, such as the huge site of Heuneburg, in southern Germany which seems to have been destroyed before a rebuilding in six hundred BC. This all shows the needs for such defensive structures, and looking at the story of wars, in classical history across all continents it does seem likely that some of the huge as well as small sites encountered attacks, fought off sometimes, and surrendered to others. Though for sure some may never have experienced a violent attack, and some may have been for most of the time, very much in peace, other than sending the odd warband out as part of an army and such, So a amazing again Tolkien style lost history, of forgotten tribes and identities. Not that life was just about war, there was also glorious art, and more importantly normal every day life, especially for the mass of the population, which like everywhere, would be a peasant or serf or somewhat akin to that life. With the odd trader, or smith, or warrior and such added in. So a story of amazingness and wonder.  Indeed some have even noticed some sites like Bibracte still had festivals held there in the Middle Ages, which may have been heirs of the previous Celtic culture, for sure elements of the culture must have survived, though heavily diluted by Frankish and Roman influences and such. So brilliant there.

 

In addition to this, we can also see the castros of Spain. These structures were similar to many forts in Britain but had a number of noticeably different styles. The culture and art of the period indicate strong similarities with the Celts and you could term these Celtic societies as well. What is for sure some North Western Spanish regions actually claim some Celtic identity. Some of the structures today still have stone foundations within the hilltop and coastal sites. You can imagine a more parched in Summer landscape, but still as full of wildlife, amid trees, and vultures, in a society that had strong similarities in terms of material culture, and types of Gods they worshipped, to Britain.

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The castros seem to have started in the 6th Century BC, with a boom in the 2nd Century BC, during increasing Roman and Greek trading influences. With interestingly, many researchers seeing signs of destruction in the time the Romans took Iberia. They also historically surrounded by stone walls, ditches or earthen ramparts, often in areas well protected by nature like peninsulas and heights. Indeed some structures were actually occupied through Rome’s control, and some claim evidence of some attacked right at the end of their era by Barbarian tribes.

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Examples include Castro de Barona. A small complex of 20 roundhouses, protected by walls on a small peninsula, with a moat to one side. With many more on high hills, such as Castro de Santa Tecla. Or like one 379 metres in altitude, of which some are later claimed as the site of the last battle of the Galicians before their unfortunate, mass suicides, in fear of the advancing Roman Legions. Sad, considering there is so much for people to live for, but at least we can be happy, that most of them from the evidence I see, had nice lives before then. With the dwellers, living the likewise to the North Western European Celts, a lifestyle of farming crops, like oats, barley, millet, chickpeas and cabbages, and livestock like sheep and cattle. With the addition of hunting wild boar, in the green sunny forests, and gathering wild fruits and acorns. This all below gliding scraggy looking vultures high in the sky, who are viewing in their pupils, their beautiful stone structures from above. Like Britain there were many of different sizes, indeed as you can see on my fun facts page, Galicia, had a example which, sits on a mount, and is 20 hectares or so in size. so pretty much a hillfort. With of course there being large, or grande examples, and small or medium sizes types, just as you get for Britain's examples. 

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It is also said, that along with similar traditions of torc wearing leaders, and a peasants citadel focalised culture. That they worship these strange half human gods, with animal elements to them, of shape changing, and believe there are gods in the trees and rivers, and nature. So again not that different to the Celts of North West Europe. Not surprising since many experts feel the pantheon of Gods for Celts, Germans, Greeks, and even as far as India have similar varieties and basis, though many differences as well it must be said. Another fine castro site is Castro de Carcoda ou Carcola

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Hillforts in Portugal, include Castro do Lesenho, which is a hillfort that sits upon a 1078 metre high hill, in the Boticas area. It is large, and has statues of Gala-Roman Warriors. 

Also there is the Castro de São Lourenço, which I saw has had lovely reconstructions of the roundhouses it had. It is from the 4th Century BC and later. It views across the Atlantic. 

Also there is the Cividade de Terroso, it was part of the urbanisation of this part of Iberia. It had a centre on Cividade Hill, or Monte da Cividade, a 153 metre mount. It is felt this site was destroyed by the empire of Rome. Some associate it to Viriathus, a leader of the Lusitanian people, of South West Iberia, regarded as a Celtic or Celtisising tribe, him the leader who was killed in the 130sBC, after they had been fighting Roman moves into here since the 190s BC or before the Common era, and before then as mercenaries. The site was in each even in the 8th Century BC. The remains of the castro, of this site still exist as ruins, as those circle shaped foundations you see for a lot of castro sites, as a testament to the people. With fountains and more ruins at satellite castros of the citadel. Another testament is that one of the exoplanets is named after the leader I mentioned who defended Lusitiania. The site has 3 rings of defensive walls, on the hill, and apparently thrived as of it's proximity to Oceanic trade with the Med. 

There was a example the castle of Cola, which was a Iron Age Castro, and even used by the Arabs when they were in Portugal. Other sites such as Castle de Balsamão, or Castle of Balsamão in Portugal, were also once fortified Iron Age sites, then later became sites of Medieval Portugal.

 

It has to be said, the idea that there were simply Celts and non-Celts is  a over simplification. Current estimates claim much of Western Europe's people came into Europe absorbing local populations a millennia or so before the Iron Age, with what is known as the Beaker People, named after the vessels they had with them. (With the possible exception of the Basques, who survived from before their arrival). These populations would have become localised, not just to the level of Wales, but likely at times more localised than that. But to a extent they would  not just keep to groups we later defined as Celts. This is shown by how there are similarities to what we term the Celts to other groups across Europe, even to the early Romans, and groups from the Balkans and Eastern Europe. In keeping with this of course the Romans, and such mixed in terms of trade and many other ways with groups to the east and south, learning their skills, cultures and other aspects of their lives,

 

 

This is why you can say some of the Balkan forts of some tribes there, north of the Greeks could be termed hillforts or oppida. The great Dacian fortresses, may be closer to fortified hill top towns in their descriptions, but could also be seen to have similarities to oppida, and hillforts. These of course portrayed in Trajan's column in the Roma era, a structure surviving today.

 

 

It is certain that castles, and walled towns replaced hillforts for a variety of reasons across Europe, despite a small regrowth of some in the post Roman era in Europe, but it does not seem to have reached level that occurred in western once Roman Britain.

 

It must also be said that in the south of Spain there were oppida like structures as well, indeed some were very much towns, even before the Romans. Some as of the influence of Carthage. It is felt the great site of Toledo, in central Spain, was likely such a site, and that it became a great site even into the Medieval era. Today it's greatness is now still preserved not far from Madrid. Carthage supposedly led southern Iberian trade such as via Cartagena, and Rome, more Gaulish trade, but that is just a general theory, and they did this from afar in the main. Which would mean that trade coming down west France, would go via Carthage, and via the centre, via Massalia near modern Marseille. With grapes and wine becoming greatly used in France during Rome, and better cultivated, the forerunner, of France's famous wine vineyards.

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Even Italy had some of these Celtic oppida, with a Etruscan town turned into a Celtic capital for a while before Italian cultures retook it. Few sites in Italy are termed hillforts, but some sites in southern Italy such as Botromagno, were used like a Iron Age hillfort of a this not Celtic group, before the Romans conquered all Italia. ​Surely there would be equivalents of hillforts here, not specially of Celtic cultures, but before towns, then they were a good idea, even for much of the rest of Italy. Though of course Italy saw towns and cities develop faster than Northern Europe. 

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Switzerland being the site of La Tene, the archaeological site which gave the name to a era of the Irin Age in Western Europe. Also has it's hillforts and Oppida. Such as Uetilberg, not that far from Zurich.  It sits 873 metres abive sea level, in this mountainous land. It was occupied from the 5th Century BC, and likely was used by the Helvetti just before the Romans came in, during the 1st Century BC. Another site of Iron Age lineage, is Mont-Terri Castle, which  sits in Jura, West Switzerland. It was used in the 1st Century BC, and some link it to the Gallic wars indeed locals even called it Julius Caesar's Camp, when it is likely Celtic. It was likely used again in the Dark Ages, and then became a medieval castle. It now sits on a wooded hilltop. 

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Also further to the east, Austria, Hungary the Czech Republic and also Slovakia had Iron Age hillfort sites. I mention some of these sites below, describing my pictures. Also though, Sandberg in Lower Austria, was a Celtic settlement, not regarded as a hillfort, but there is the site of Stillfried in eastern Austria as well. It has seen examination in relation to rituals, cereal production, and it's axis point on the Amber Road. So a bit like Devin Castle, which I mention below for Slovakia, which was also a major location on a trade route. On top of the Celtic hillforts that I mention below, the Czechs to some extent regard some of the sites built in the 9th and 10th Century in central Bohemia, as hillforts, indeed a network of the, protected this Slavic nation state in it's early days. Sites such as Libusin, a 9th Century fort, seen as central to the Czech defences at that time. Just showing as I say below, that these hillfort sites very much suited the geography and nature of conflicts in these Central European lands, in certain places. As I say I mention more on Czech and Slovak forts below. 

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Both Belgrade and Budapest have claims that their sites were founded as de facto hillforts by Celtic forebears. Though of course earlier and later groups must have played a great part as well. Hungary uses the term Földvár, for hillfort, That includes the Bronze Ahge site of Százhalombatta, which on a hilltop dominated a setting over the wide blue Danube, It does not seem to have progressed into the Iron Age. Also in South West Hungary there was what is referred to as  celtoic Castle on Jacob's Hill. It was the key sites in the area afore the Romans, and seems to have been in use in 750 AD, 350 AD, and then abandoned in the 1st Century AD.  It had  6 to 10 metre high stone and earth walls surrounding it. It is felt the site's people would have been moved out by the Romans. 

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The Croatian land mass, also sees there were hillforts used by the Illyrian peoples, the Illyrian peoples the not Celtic,Tariotes and Liburnians, in the 1st Millennium BC, It seems they were used to control, trade and local areas, Both groups were mentioned by the Romans, who eventually conquered their lands. Slovenia also has hillforts such as Kučar. Not surprisingly, Montenegro with a site at Kotor St John Castle, and Albania, with Zgërdhesh hill-fort, have similar situations where hillforts  Also Bosnia, had Daorsan sites, a also not Celtic group, that had similar ways to hillforts, but were more like what the Dacians had, as in more a different type of society. Of course we know the Romanians had Dacia, whose great sites of hillforts were more like Rome's cities, though at times were on great hill tops, so like hillforts and oppida. Such as Sarmizegetusa Regia. Bulgaria is the site of a Celtic hillfort, at Veliko Tarnovo. I have said somewhere here, the Acropolis, was once a hillfort, so Greece and it's Ancient people had these type structures, and of course, had this idea as well, such as Derbend castle, but hillforts like this in Turkey would have existed in prioer millennia, never mind centuries, before Celtic hillforts, as the idea is such a good one. I have not seen a indication San Marino, or Andorra had hillforts even though they are so high, or even Liechtenstein, and of course Monaco is too close by the sea for proper hillforts I think. 

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Other great example of hillforts include what occurred in Scandinavia in the later 1st and earlier 2nd millennium, when in a not that connected to Celtic society, way, the Swedes, and Norwegians had hillfort style structures. Though castles soon replaced them after that. It has been said there are 1100 hillforts in Sweden alone, especially on the west coast, Norway has 400, and Denmark twenty six. Finland, also has some estimated to be about a hundred, of which Rapola Castle, is the largest  and it seems to have been in use during the 13th and fifteenth centuries in defending against the Swedes, and Russia's Novgorodians, it was about half as long as Maiden Castle so is of a reasonable size. Some hillforts extend into Northern Russia. It seems, Finland has forts that were once by the sea, but as of uplift of the land after affects of the Ice Age, they are now further inland,

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Sweden's hillforts were there during a period of mass migrations in Europe, and it has some large ones. The largest in Scandinavia, is Halleburg, it is highly atypical as of it's immense size. It is a table mountain, which is naturally fortified by the steep slopes of the side. Then added to this, there are 1800 metres of ramparts, on the parts which need these, of which the longest is 700 metres long. The area enclosed, mostly by natural cliffs encloses a ginormous area of 7 square miles, which is 1812 hectares, so a area 100 times the size of Maiden Castle. This of course is not a hillfort, more a refuge area, with a dyke protecting it. It was used again in the Swedish Danish wars of the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries, and a Russian war of the 18th Century, and was besieged for 7 years in a 1490s to fifteen ten conflict. A castle did end up being placed here, and it is reputed to be the site of Valhalla, where Odin dwelt. It is mainly from the 3rd Century.

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The second largest is Lollands Österborg, Denmark, at 1.9 square miles,  from 550 AD, the Scandinavian Iron Age, again it was a refuge in times of troubles. The isle, which is not that many times bigger than the said site, actually neighbours isles, which also have such refuge sites in the time of the age of mass migrations.

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The 3rd largest in Scandinavia, is the more normal sized Torsburgen on Gotland, at around 100 hectares, or Thor's castle. It again in use, the 1st to 12th Century. It could easily have been a refuge for all Gotland's 10,000 people of the time. Little research has been done on this site, but it is guessed 3000 men would take a year to build it, and 1000 could defend it's walls, that sit on this plateau. The rubble walls, still look pretty good today, and it sits well in local legends. In fact the 4th largest hillfort in Scandinavia, is also on Gotland, Grogarnsberget, at a quarter the size of Maiden Castle. So it is not the case Scandinavia has loads of giant hillforts, just a very good number. Of the 82 other forts on Gotland, I think mostly hillforts on Gotland, most are barely a tenth of a hectare, I wonder if this is the size of most Scandinavian hillforts. Gotland was a major trading centre in the Viking era, and Middle Ages.

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The ones in Norway for example, have walls, and sit on rocky outcrops including sites known as bygdeborg, they are nowhere near as big as those sites mentioned as the largest in the peninsula, and were from similar periods. Many are covered in forests. In cases many sit where they need just a rampart, as slopes and rocks protect other sides. They are more common in the south east, and south. Some were on important traffic arteries, and some had palisades. The largest had wall lengths of several hundred metres. There are debates if they were refuges, or military garrisons, for protection or defence, or even aggressive conquest, or even ritual sites. They stopped being used by a century before 700. A example of a large one would be Rudskulen, which had room for about a 100 people to live. Likely a refuge for locals farms. Many area covered in forests, amid Norway's life, surely many area like that for Sweden. This was just before the Viking period.

 

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It seems the Ukraine also had some hillfort, in the western forests. Plus also had one near Kiev. Such as the site of Khotiv Hillfort near Kiev. It was from the sixth century BC, and sits on a plateau, with 31 hectares surrounded by rampart. It seems to have traded with Classical civilisations, as shown by how a coin from Corinthian mints was found there from this early era. Buildings with indications of life were found, so many feel it was where Scythian lived, with pigs, cattle, and horses, goats and dogs. With the locals hunting beavers and aurochs. They were likely the Scythians termed tillers, different to the more horse using types, Herodotus mentions them. The ramparts were quite large, and the site was a major one.

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The forest steppe hillforts had even more trade with the Greeks, and these forts were on the Black Sea forest steppe, and the Pontic. Just east of the Carpathians, and north of the Black Sea, with some extending towards Kiev. The ones in the west, had more Greek trade. Whether these sites were to protect from Scythian horsemen, or each other is a open question, There were some giant forts as mentioned across the area, but another good example would be Severynivka Hillfort. Unused Scythian arrowheads in the forts indicate either trade with them, or that they were farming Scythians.

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Poland was not so much within the orbit or Celtic hillfort cultures, but there were some equivalents. For instance from just before the 7th Century, some Slavic fortifications that could be termed hillforts were developing, a very small number in the south, there may have been some before, but these were at their prime then.  Actually some even existed in the North East, like Mazovia, had for example Szeligi, while the west had for example Bonikowo. The ones from this era were not even a hectare in size. Then by a century larger ones existed, most were that small, and a bit bigger but some were as big as a few hectares, even in modern South West Poland, Silesia, and other parts of southern Poland, like at Krakov. Indeed Krakov Castle, one of the greatest in size in the world, is in the area of a great hillfort, that was large for the time in those days. Possibly this castle culture was started round then in a way. A Arab writer claimed Slavic fortresses in the 10th Century were only occupied during raids, which may be correct if the lack of finds within the sites from these times is true. Krakov has a mammoth bone there, which in legend is associated to a dragon slayed by one of it's forces so interesting legends, in a sense from just after Slavic hillfort times, just before Teutonic and Slavic castle times or kind of mixed into both. The forts were it seems of tribal territories within the Slavic groups, that later developed more fully into the national groupings that in the Middle Ages, became kingdoms, and later nation states in the EU. There were some spreading from modern Germany, to Belarus, of this culture, so likely not that far from Lithuania. Some feel as Belarus had similar structures a couple of centuries earlier, the hillfort idea for here came from there, but I am not sure if there was a the odd hillfort in southern Poland even in Celtic times.

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Russia as I say has some elements of hillforts, some of Slavic, some of many other tradition, Indeed not only does the Kremlin have a argument about it being originally a hillfort, but Novgorod, the main rival as Russia's leading city states with Moscow, before it became prime of all the Russia's, was a scion of Rurikovo Gorodische, 2km from the modern city. Here there is a fort, more a low lying river side fort, that is seen as the beginning of Novgorod, in the time when the 2nd Millennium was about to begin, Then again many places have forts.

a scion of

The best evidence that the Celts idea of hillforts did not spread as I believe by a cultural osmosis, in the recorded story of the Gauls who settled in Turkey in the 3rd Century BC. These people brought their religion, and lived apart from the locals they conquered. They ruled as a warrior aristocracy, over a people who they let rule themselves for the most part. They were taken over by Rome, as a client state about 3 centuries later. It seems in the main they occupied cities that were already ancient, so whether they built special hillforts  i am unsure, but overtime they absorbed into the population. These Celts extended as far as Ankara, in central parts of Turkey, and were even mentioned in the Bible by apostles there.

I still believe most hillfort expansion was by cultural osmosis.

Possibly Iceland's Borgarvirki, was used as a fort by the Vikings, it is a natural volcanic feature that has natural defences surrounding it, overlooking plains below. It is uncertain if it was used as a fortress, but legends say it was, it rises 177 metres above sea level. I have not seen anything regards to the Faeroe Islands in terms of hillforts. 

 

More relevantly to hillforts really, Lithuania and to a extent Latvia had them too. Latvia seems to have had them from the Bronze Age to Iron Age, and more so from the 5th Century. With then also constant use of them in the era of after then of using them in defences against the Crusader knights of the Teutonic and Livonian order from Germany and other parts of Western Europe. Who saw all fall out of use in the 12th – 14th Centuries.

Indeed the same was true of Lithuania, who had massive wooden defences on there hillforts, defending against attacks, to the mid-14th century, helping this land stay pagan till then, hundreds of years after Poland and Russia had Christianised. With it in union with Poland becoming a major power as a more Christian union till the city state empire of Moscow led Russia’s growth into this area and Ukraine in the 17th-Century. A rivalry that had been coming from earlier, but continued onwards. The Lithuanian forts, like the Iron Age British ones, are now denuded, but covered in trees, and containing ramparts. They even though have one called the hill of crosses, Meškuičių seniūnija, which has been covered in Christian crosses and was seen as a site that was a symbol of defiance against Russian Imperial, then Soviet control.

Most Lithuanian hillforts, whose term is Piliakilnis in their language, could be termed mounds. Many were on mounds. Most to me look a similar size to Dinas Emrys, and were often round.         

Some have associations of local legends such as to great kings, and even to Pagan temples and brutal battles with the Crusaders, there are around 900 according to some estimates, but that may include later medieval castles. Some had castles built on later.

Some depictions of them, have a bit of the ring of modern Eastern European palaces about them. In terms of the architectural style. So they imagine Baltic, Slavic or Eastern European style rooves and such. If this were the case, it is a idyllic thought of a Baltic and Slavic style people and society  of forests, communities, and the round mounds, and many Pagan gods they worship defending strongly v the knights, but now some mythology continues, in legends, and even amid elements of the folk culture, organised and less so of today.

In terms of size they look Dinas Emrys size, but round, I reference it as I go on about hillforts in the British Isles in other pages of  this website hillforts.co.uk  

 

Also fortified hilltop sites were in use across Europe across history, Some even term the Acropolis a hillfort, for the period before it became the place where they put the mighty building and the statue of Athena that sat atop it. Indeed Greece to a extent must have had more citadels like this, and as time went on before even Persian attacks, centuries before Rome took Britain or Greece started city wall building for enlarging towns and cities. In one of the Athens' museums I did notice a model built of that hill, when it was a hillfort. Maybe more hillforts that became religious centres, like in Ireland's pre Christian times, started as military or political centres.

 

Some as I say even term Moscow's Kremlin's first site a similar site to a hillfort. Which would of course make it the most power powerful hillfort site in the world today. Though for many reasons they were not the same as those in Western Europe. You could say the Greek ones were, quite similar in design but from a different background, but of course they did have walled towns, and such develop before hillforts were at their prime in Britain.

 

I better add, my story that this website has the job of advertising, does mention, and enter into, as part of the adventure into continental Europe, mainly in part through their footsteps in Gaul.

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Some more random interesting facts on European Oppida include, 

* There was a steamship called the Alesia, so after a hillfort Oppidum kind of thing,  It served from 1882 to 1899, was 328 feet long, was registered at Marseilles,  and could fit around 1000 passengers. It was built in Liverpool. It during its time, experienced a time at sail, as of the engine being out of action, a cholera epidemic and a fire on board due to its sulphur cargo being on fire, but that was put out. The ship was scrapped in the end after some tough service.. 

* Also the locomotive Europorte 4006 in 2011 was baptised as Alesia. So thats where the hobbies of trainspotting and hillforts combine for you there all.

* There is also a street in Paris named Rue d'Alesia 

* Plus many other things named after, cafes and more. 

* And of course a metro station named after it in Paris. 

* Plus  a train station called Les-Laumes - Alesia Railway Station, Gare des Laumes - Alesia, in France, on a map half way between Paris and Switzerland, it is in Venerey -les - Laumes. Which makes, sense, the Burgundy area after all. 

* Plus a helmet style and more. 

* Some people call part of Galicia, the Costa dos Castros, as it has so many castros. 

* a Corunna and Braga, and the River Doura, (Like the Welsh Dwr)  have Celtic elements to their names, so Iberian Celtic terms surviving to today. 

* Of the many surviving castros in Portugal well most have a Portuguese or Spanish name, but Conimbriga was derived from the old Iberian Celt name for a Castro that today sits under a ruined Roman city of Conimbriga, Though more a town than a hillfort even in Celtic times, it surely would have had a similar culture to hillfort castros, so is a survivor of then in a way. And it gave the name to the nearby Portuguese community of Coimbra. It seems. Indeed Portugal itself, the land which gave its name to the language of Brazil and Cape Verde, the name comes from the Celtic name Portus Cale, from a town, itself on the Doura River. So the language as well there as well. 

* The most Celtic name Castro I could find, was in Galicia, San Cibran de Las, which comes from the name, and is a proper looking hillfort / castro at 473 metres above sea level hill. So it had the Celtic name Lasbrica from that it seems, which means The Fort of the Plain. I wonder if this could be almost the oldest Celtic name for a hillfort. As all the ones in Celtic Britain, and Brittany you never know if it is a later name, but this surely is a name, derived, I am guessing the Celtic name is a estimate, is from what it was called when the Celtic language of Galicia was around, which was the 1st Millennium, probably the beginning of it. So surely you could guess this is the oldest surely Celtic name for a hillfort around when it was used. Except maybe some French ones, which we know were those sites attested by Latin sources, of the time, but even then, thats unsure. I mean As in Iron Aee, not later Dark Ages ones, which we may have more clue on what their names were in Celtic times, indeed we do, like Dumbarton and such, but they were later. So thats cool I would think there. 

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So anyway words for hillfort in many languages include, fornborg in Swedish, bakkefort in Norewigan and Danish, linnoitus in Finnish, and pilskalns in Latvian, wzgórze in Polish.,  castro or  in Portuguese,Fortaleza da Colina and  in German, Hügelfestungand in Esperanto. montetofortikaĵo,  in Czhradištěech, and  in Icelandic, hæðarvirki, and in Italian , forte di collina, and in Russian  городище, and Ukranianian , and городищеin and  in Romanian,  castel and  in Estonian. linnamägi So that is Hillforts. heuvelfort in Dutch, ридфорт in Macedonian, λόφοφορτ in Greek, igquma in Zulu, تپه قلعه in Persian, 希尔福特 in Chinese, پہاڑی قلعہ in Urdu, and finally collis in Latin. OK  in Swakilimahili, 

 and  infuerte en la colina Spanish. And  hradiskoin Slovakian. 

Again I have some pics below of some example sites, and their descriptions.